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Contributions of Ancient Arabian and Egyptian Scientists on Astronomy

Md. Wasim Aktar
Department. of EAB. Chemicals Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur, Nadia, West Bengal, India.

Astronomy ('Ilm al-Hay'ah) or the science of training (ie the heavens) deals with things like the structure of the sky, the number and configuration of the stars, the signs of the zodiac, the distances of the stars, their size and their movements. It deals also the compilation of planetary tables, the catalog of stars for making calendars and similar tasks.

The Arabs taken a keen interest in studying the sky. They have developed this interest Firstly, because they had once adored the heavenly bodies, (1) and, secondly, because the desert dwellers who usually traveled at night in the framework of trade, war and the exodus of a place to another, find the meaning of their journey with the help of stars. The desert sky gave them a chance to make precise observations. Thus, there had some locally acquired knowledge of the fixed stars, planetary motion and changes in the weather.

After the advent Islam, Muslims had to determine the time of prayers and the direction of the Kaaba to turn their faces towards him at the time of prayer. At this end, it was necessary to know the sun's altitude and latitude and longitude of all places where Muslims lived. The same need arises in the direction of the mosque. This gave a religious impetus to the study of astronomy and related subjects such as geography astronomy and mathematics. On the other hand, Muslims who once made the booming trade in the world and sometimes started the Jihad had to travel on land and sea To help travel, navigation and meteorology, a by-product of the sea, they needed maps out. The need for these cards was also a cause of their interest in astronomy.

There was a group of astronomers who believed in the influence of the stars on earthly affairs, and the fate and future of human beings. They said the prognosis for sub-lunar events of the revolution the sky, the zodiacal signs in the ascendant and the planets move was possible. The science that deals with influences such reads as astrology ('Ilm-al-Ahkam Nujum). Astrology, as part of Astronomy, has been studied and developed by Babylonians. Study of this art or science was then taken to Greece and Rome centuries before the opening of the Christian era. He has also cultivated India, China and Egypt. From the 7th to the 13th century it was developed by Muslims and later by Europeans. In the 14th and 15th centuries, astrologers had a great influence on the kings of European countries. (2) The orthodox Muslims do not believe in the influence of celestial bodies on the fate or future of human beings.

The regular study of astronomy and mathematics began in Baghdad the second half of the 8th century under the reign of the second 'Abbasi Caliph Al-Mansour. After the sponsorship and generosity of Muslim rulers others, especially the seventh 'Abbasi Caliph Al-Ma'mun, provided stimulus for astronomical research and mathematical any kind. Indian, Persian and Greek astronomical works were translated into Arabic, and to make astronomical observations observatories have been created by caliphs and individuals at various locations in the Muslim world. Astronomy has been studied with great interest with the result that the number of Muslim astronomers raised in a surprisingly short period of time, and by the late 10th century, a large number of Muslim astronomers eminent met in Baghdad. In the 11th and 12th centuries astronomy flourished in Muslim Spain where much of the work creative and original on this branch of science has been done.

Muslim scientists placed a great premium on accuracy in the observations and calculations, regardless of the length of time needed for that. So, sometimes, their astronomical researches lasted more than forty years. Because of this desire Precision Muslims have not accepted as such astronomical tables or measures of Ptolemy, a great Greek astronomer and mathematician. They accepted his planetary theory we have to provide a base for astronomical research. They behaved Astronomical Research in Baghdad, Samarkand, Nishapur, Cordoba, Damascus and Ray, and after a careful study of the sky, they not only corrected and amplified astronomical tables of Ptolemy, but also compiled a number of new and established catalogs of new stars. On the basis of new observations, the Ptolemaic system was repeatedly criticized by the Muslim astronomers, especially those of Spain.

Investigations into astronomy have been prosecuted until the late 11th century, almost all original and creative work was done by Muslims, and even works of non-Muslims were written in Arabic. Astronomy reached its highest level in the 13th and 14th centuries. In the 12th century, Christians and Jews started the work Translation from Arabic into Latin and Hebrew, and began conducting research in this area. But until the late 13th century, no work mathematics and astronomy comparable to that of Muslims could be produced by Christians or Jews. It is interesting to note that, in the 12th century, while Ptolemy astronomical work, Almagest, after thorough study and research, has been subjected to severe criticism by Muslims in particular those of Spain, the study of this work was begun in the Latin world.

Besides compiling astronomical tables, Muslims established celestial globes on which the positions and magnitudes of the stars were represented. The globe is the Greek origin but since the time of Ptolemy, there was a continuous improvement on it. Muslim scientists have also written entire books on astronomy and mathematics, and also wrote treatises on various branches of science.

Muslim astronomers have also prepared the maps from heaven to preserve ancient astronomical knowledge, and use as an aid to travel, navigation and meteorology.

A great encouragement for the study of astronomy came from an Indian astronomical work called Siddhanta which was introduced at the court of Baghdad by a Hindu Kanka. Kanka met Tariq ibn Ya'qub in 767 was one of the greatest astronomers of his time. Tariq ibn Yacoub handed him the Caliph Al-Mansour (3). Kanka showed the book to the Caliph who ordered Muhammad Ibn Ibrahim Al-Fazari to translate into Arabic (4). He also ordered that work should be based on Siddhanta compound which could serve as a reference book for the Arabs. Muhammad Ibn Ibrahim took this responsibility and has prepared a book which was called by astronomers Sindh as Hind al-Kabir (the Great Siddhanta). (5) It was used until the time of Caliph al-Ma'mun. Then Al-Khwarizmi, who was one of the greatest scientists, prepared a summary of this book. He also compiled astronomical tables and trigonometric function the combined methods of Indians, Persians and Greeks. These tables have been revised by al-Maslamah Majriti (C. the second half the 10th century). They have gained popularity to the point where they have been used, even in China. In the 12th century, the translation of these tables has been made in Latin. (5) Al-Khwarizmi glimpsed in his works on astral movement and strength of attraction the law of universal gravitation.

The astronomer Ibrahim Ibn Habib al-Fazari was the first Muslim who constructed astrolabes. He composed a poem on astrology, and compiled a Zij (Calendar) by the method Arabic. He has also written about the use of astrolabes and armillary spheres on. (6)

In 762-63 the Persian astronomer and engineer, Naubakht with Masha Allah "(in Latin Macellama, Macelarama, Messahala), conducted a survey before the building Baghdad. Masha Allah "(D. 815 or 820) was one of the earliest astronomers and astrologers, who flourished under the Caliph Al-Mansur. (7) Naubakht (D. 776-77) was the author of a book on astrological judgments entitled Kitab al-Ahkam. (8)

During the reign of the Caliph al-Ma'mun the important work of translation of Ptolemy's Almagest from Greek into Arabic was completed. The caliph was very eager to have it translated correctly. It has been revealed in several timed. many comments on this subject have been written. His summaries were also made. The Minister Yahya Ibn Khalid Barmaki was the first to translate. A group of researchers wrote him a comment on this book, but he did not that. He named Abu Hassan and Salman were attached to the Academy of Sciences called Bait al-Hikmah (House of Wisdom) to write Comment on this subject. (9) The Almagest is the best example of classical Greek works on astronomy. He has served as the basis for more work later astronomical. Al-Hajjaj Ibn Yusuf, was an early translator of the Almagest of. He made this translation on the basis of a version Syriac. (10)

The caliph al-Ma'mun (169-218 / 786-833) was very fond of philosophy and science. The more he learns about the problems interesting science, the more his interest grew in the work practices. He built an observatory in Baghdad's al-Hikmah Bait and another in the plain of Tadmor (Palmyra). In these observatories fundamentals of the Almagest of, as the inclination of the ecliptic, the length of the year solar, and the precession of the equinoxes were verified. Observations on the celestial motions were carried and geodesic measurements made. (11)
Al-Ma'mun ordered Ahmed, Mohammed and Hassan, who were eminent scientists and his courtiers, measure, in collaboration with scientists from other courts of the length of the terrestrial degree and the circumference of the earth in some extensive plans. Plans and Sinjar Tadmor were selected for this purpose. Astronomers have stayed in place and noted with the aid of the altitude of the North. Pole and pitched a nail there. Then tie a long rope with a fingernail, they carried the rope in the direction of North. When they raised the rope over another nail and another rope tied it, and proceeded in the same direction. They continued this process as well as observations on the altitude of the pole North to reach a particular spot they noticed that the altitude of the pole had increased by one degree. The distance they cover was also measured, which was at 56 2 / 3 miles. From these observations, it was deduced that for each level ground distance amounts covered the earth at 56 2 / 3 miles. The same operation was repeated in the direction of the South, a place where they noticed altitude decreased by one degree. The distance covered is the same as in the first case. Now, multiplying this distance by 360 which is the total number of degrees land, the circumference of the earth was considered to be equal to 20,400 miles, and the diameter is equal to 6,500 miles. (12)

The Head of astronomers who made observations under al-Ma'mun ibn Ali Sanad was. He was a Jew converted to Islam. He built a observatory (Kanisah) on the back of the door of the palace Shamãsiah Mu'izz al-Daula in Baghdad. An astronomical table and some writings on astronomy and mathematics, including a book on Arabic numerals assigned. (13)

'Ali Ibn' Isa al-Astur1ãbi who flourished in Baghdad and Damascus in the first half of the 9th century, took part in the measurement of the length of the degree land classified by al-Ma'mun. He astronomical observations in Baghdad and Damascus from 829 to 833. He was the builder of the famous astrolabes, hence the nickname al-Asturlãbi (Manufacturer of astrolabe). He wrote a treatise on the astrolabe, which is one of the first books on this instrument. (14)

Yahya ibn Abi Mansur also took part in the observations made in Baghdad, 829-30, and compiled astronomical tables called tables Ma'munic. As these tables Habash too, are a collective of "different astronomers. Al-Marwarudhi, which also flourished under al-Ma'mun, made solar observations. (15)

In the 9th century astronomy flourished in the East Observatory have been made in observatories Baghdad, Damascus and other places. More original work and the improvement has been made in the second half of the 10th century. The development of trigonometry, which was considered a branch of astronomy at the time, was also continued. Much Attention was paid to building good astronomical instruments, particularly the spherical astrolabe, which was newly introduced at this time. Hamid Ali Ibn 'was a famous manufacturer of spherical astrolabes. Jabir ibn Sinan was also a manufacturer of that other astronomical instruments. According to Al-Biruni, he was the first to make a spherical astrolabe. Al-Nairizi writing on this instrument to develop a treaty which is the best Arabic work on this subject. In this treatise, the author, after giving the introduction, describes the instruments, and gives its applications. Alongside this work, al-Nairizi compiled astronomical tables. A great scholar al-Mahani done for 33 years (833-886), a series of observations on the eclipses lunar and solar and planetary conjunctions. Another astronomer of that time Ahmad al-nahawand, who flourished at the time of Yahya ibn Khalid ibn Barmak, have astronomical observations and compiled tables called Jundishapur Mushtamil. (16)

After carrying out astronomical observations during ten years (from 825 to 835) Habash al-Hasib compiled three astronomical tables. The first were based on the Hindu method (based on Siddhanta). Second called Al-Zij al-Mumtahan (tables "tested") by the method have been Arabic. They were very important and have probably been through the cooperative efforts of astronomers al-Ma'mun. The third called Al-Zij al-Saghir (small tables) was known as Shah tables. Habash al-Hasib determined the timing of the solar eclipse of the year 829. It was the first to determine the time from an altitude (in this case, the sun). This method has been generally accepted and adopted by Muslim astronomers. (17)

The man of the most illustrious of this age, and one of the greatest astronomers of Islam, was' Abd Allah Muhammad ibn Jabir ibn Sinan al-Battani (Latin Albategnius, Albatenius). His ancestors were Sabians of Harran, but he was himself a Muslim. He made astronomical observations of a wide range and with remarkable accuracy for about 41 years (877-918). He identified several astronomical factors, such as the precession of 54.5 "per year, the ecliptic inclination of 23 ° 35 ' with great precision. He has noticed an increase of 16 ° 47 'in longitude of the apogee of the sun since the time of Ptolemy. This led to the discovery of the motion of the apses solar and gradual change in the equation of time. Al-Battani proved the possibility of eclipses ring of the sun. He also wrote many astrological works. His main work is a great treatise astronomical, including astronomical tables. His paintings present a catalog of fixed stars for the year 880-81. His work is an advance on that of Al-Khwarizmi, and shows more divergence from methods Indian. Observations on the first appearance of the new moon, the length of the sidereal and tropical year, the obliquity of the ecliptic, lunar anomalies, parallaxes, etc., are more complicated and more specifically by Al-Battani Al-Khwarizmi as

Al-Battani Treaty of Astronomy was translated into Latin and Spanish in the 12th and 13th centuries, respectively. He exerted great influence on the European scholars of the Middle Ages and Renaissance. (L8)

Thabit ibn Qurrah († 901), who was a doctor, mathematician, astronomer and translator of Greek and Syriac into Arabic published his observations Solar made in Baghdad. He has determined the height of the sun and the length of the solar year. (19)

The astronomer and mathematician Wijan Ibn Rustam al-Kuhi has written many books in astronomy and mathematics, including a treatise on the construction of the astrolabe. He was head of the astronomers working in 988 at the observatory of Sharaf al-Dawla Buwayhid is. (20) His colleague, Ahmad ibn Muhammad al-Saghâni was the inventor and manufacturer of astronomical instruments. Abu'l-Wafa is said to be the discoverer of the change, inequality third of the moon, a discovery which was later attributed to Tycho Brahe. (21)

'Ali ibn al-Hussein al-'Alawi (d. 985) has shown a remarkable precision observations. He compiled astronomical tables which remained popular for at least two centuries. (22)

We now come to a famous astronomer of the 10th century, named Abu'l-Husain 'Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi. He was born in Ray (Persia) in 903 and died in 966. He was a prominent astronomer of the medieval period. His knowledge of astronomy to both Islamic and Greek, especially uranometry was complete. It was the first to observe the color change the stars, the change in the size of stars, the proper motion of stars, the stars of long period variable the constellations of the South who have been wrongly attributed by some modern astronomers later.
Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi was sponsored by the Buwayhid rule Adud al-Dawla (949-982) who was a great patron of astronomy, and had built an observatory at Shiraz. Al-Sufi wrote for the sovereign uranometry a book entitled al-Suwar Kawakib (The Book of fixed stars). In this book he gives a full description of the constellations. It gives also the position of each star in the constellation, illustrating with pictures. The book contains 55 astronomical tables and illustrations of the 48 constellations in 96 charts as seen in the heavens. The artistic value of pictorial illustrations in the MSS. This work is of very great, and is one of the best examples of miniature painting Persian. Al-Sufi has not only corrected the errors of observations in the work of his predecessors, like Al-Battani, but also highlighted a number of observations defect found in the Almagest of Ptolemy. He has carefully defined the boundaries of each constellation, and recorded the sizes and positions of the stars According to new observations.

The al-Suwar Kawakib is one of the three masterpieces of the observational astronomy of the time medieval and the other two being the catalogs of Ibn Yunus and Ulugh Beg prepared in the 12th and 15th centuries, respectively. It complements Muslims in the knowledge uranometry. The following astronomers such as Al-Biruni, Alfonso, Prince of Castile, Khwajah Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, Ulugh Beg and Prince Jai Singh II on the basis of their catalogs out of this faith catalog. This work has been translated into Latin, French and Persian, and a commentary on it has been written in Spanish.
He served as the basis for later work in Western Europe. Modern astronomers as Hauber Down Argelander, Ideler, and Knobel Schellerup made extensive use of it.

Al-Sufi has prepared a fine celestial globe. Several celestial globes which cover the period from 11th to 18th century show the positions of stars and the scale according to al-Sufi. He showed remarkable accuracy in the design astrolabes. He wrote a treatise on this instrument. In this treaty, it throws light on the astronomical techniques practiced since that time. (23)

Another great astronomer and one of greatest Muslim astronomers was Abu'l-Hasan Ali Ibn Abi Said Abd al-Rahman Ibn Ahmad Ibn Yunus al-Sadaf, generally known as Ibn Yunus. It was well versed in Arabic literature, poetry and history, and was aware of many other subjects. He belonged to Egypt, where died in 1009. He was a courtier of the Caliph Billah Fatimi al-'Aziz (975-996). He has a chance to work in a well-equipped observatory has been from a Muslim Academy of Sciences, the name of Dar al-Hikmah (House of Wisdom), founded in Cairo by leaders Fatimi. He made astronomical observations, and by order of Caliph al-Aziz, he compiled astronomical tables. The work of compiling these tables was begun in 990 during the life the caliph, but was completed after his death by his son al-Hakim (966-1020). That is why they were named after Al-Zij al-Kabir al-Hakimi. In these tables, he entered his observations on the eclipses and conjunctions, old and new, improved values of astronomical constants (inclination of the ecliptic, 23 ° 35 'longitude of the apogee of the sun, 86 ° 10'; solar parallax reduced from 3 to 2 '; precession, 51.2 "a year). He gave an account of the geodetic measurements have been conducted by order of Caliph al-Ma'mun in the ninth century.
Ibn Yunus in his astronomical tables (written in 4 volumes) has corrected the errors of astronomical observations in the tables of his predecessors. The people of Egypt based on these tables. It is said that after their compilation of the use of all previous tables in the world has been abandoned. Even astronomers of China has greatly used. The translation of a large part of the tables, except the chronological section, was made in French in 1804.

In addition to these paintings, Ibn Yunus wrote many books. One of these al-Samt Jadawil (tables management) and the other is the al-Shams wa Jadawil-Qamar (the tables of the sun and moon). (24)

A famous astronomer of the 11th century, which belonged to Cordoba (Spain), was Abu Ishaq Ibrahim ibn Yahya al-Naqqash, commonly known as Ibn Al-or Al-Zarqali Zarqali (Latin: Arzachel). It was also a prominent astronomer of the century. He lived from 1029 to 1087. It was the best observer of his time, who made astronomical observations for about 19 years (1061-1080). He invented an improved astrolabe called Safihah (Arzachel Saphaea) on which he also wrote a treatise. It was translated into Latin, Hebrew and many languages. Al-Zarqali was the first to prove explicitly the motion of the solar apogee with reference to the stars. By his calculations, it is equal to 12.04 "per year (the actual value being 11.8"). He edited the planetary tables called Tables of Toledo. These paintings were probably the result of observations made in Toledo by him and a great observer Ibn Said, in collaboration with other Muslims and Jewish astronomers. They have been translated into Latin and a good reputation. (25)

A famous astronomer, mathematician and poet, 'Umar ibn al-Khayyam, reformed the old Persian calendar, which was replaced by the Muslim calendar after the Muslim conquest of Persia. This calendar has been reformed called Al-Tarikh al-Jalali after the name of Sultan Malik Shah Jalal al-Din Saljuq which in 1074-75 called 'Umar ibn al-Khayyam at his observatory in the manufacture this reform. Several interpretations have been given. Each interpretation is correct to a certain extent, but in any case "calendar Umar was probably more accurate than the Gregorian (Christian) calendar. Three interpretations, the second seems to be more precise, are cited here with the authority interpretation and resulting error.

1. interpretation al-Shirazi: 17 leap days in 70 years; error. 1 day in about 1540 years.
2. Ulugh Beg interpretation 15 intercalary days in 62 years; error, 1 day to about 3770 years.
3. modern interpretation: 8 leap days in 33 years: error, 1 day approximately 5,000
(In the Gregorian calendar there is an error of 1 day in 3330 years). (26)

The greatest astronomer of the 12th century, which also belonged to Spain, was Abu Muhammad Jabir ibn Aflah. He was born or lived Seville. He strongly criticized the Ptolemaic theory of planets and wrote a book on astronomy entitled Majisti al-Islah (the Correction of the Almagest). He believed that the inferior planets, Mercury and Venus), at least, must have visible parallaxes. Venus can be found exactly on the line joining the sun and the earth. The most important part of his book is the introduction to trigonometry. The book was soon translated into Latin and Hebrew. Jabir ibn Aflah is said to be the inventor of the astronomical instrument called Turquet (Torquetum) that contains two circles is a graduate in two perpendicular planes. The same invention has also been attributed to two other persons, namely, Frances Leigh (11th century) and Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (13th century). The Turquet was introduced in the Latin West by Regionomentus. He gained a great popularity in the 15th and 17th centuries. (27)

Another astronomer of the time was Abu'l Qasim Husain Hibat Allah ibn al-Badi 'al-Asturlãbi. He was also a physician, mathematician, poet and writer. He was the greatest expert of his time in the knowledge and the construction of astrolabes, hence his nickname al-Asturlãbi. In 1120-30 astronomical observations have been made under his direction, and the astronomical tables were compiled. The observations were made in the palace Saljuq Sultan of Iran, Mahmoud al-Din Mughith (1117-1131). The tables have been devoted to the sultan, and were called after him Mahmudic tables. Al-Asturlãbi was very praised by Muslim biographers. He died in Baghdad in 1139-40. (28)

In the 13th century, it flourished Is the great scholar of Persian origin, named Abu Ja'far Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn al-Hasan Nasir al-Din al-Tusi al-Muhaqqiq, (the researcher). There is born in Tus (Khurasan) in 1201, and died in Baghdad in 1274. He was a philosopher, mathematician, astronomer and physician. He was one of the greatest mathematicians Muslims and scientists. He writes in Arabic and Persian. It is said that he knew Greek as well. He joined the service of the Mongols, and was later director of sales Business Waqf.

While he was a director resident at Maragha Asia Minor (1259-1274). Here, he made astronomical observations in an observatory set up by the Mongol Hulagu Khan II rule after he defeated the last 'Abbasi Caliph, Al-Mu'tasim, in 1258. Library was attached. It is said to have contained 4, 00,000 volumes, including the Mongol armies had gathered in Syria, Mesopotamia and Persia. Nasir al-Din was the first director of the observatory. He was replaced by two of his son.
Nasir al-Din was familiar with the knowledge of the Greeks. He wrote some 64 works on many subjects. Here, we consider that some of its astronomical and astrological works. The most important job astronomical Nasir al-Din is the Tadhkirah fi 'Ilm al-Hay'ah (The description of astronomy), which is a condensed summary of astronomy. To explain the many comments and reviews are great written. The work has a very popular, it consists of four chapters. The second chapter, alongside other things, contains an interesting critique of Ptolemy's Almagest in which he showed great ingenuity. The criticism mainly concerns the abnormalities of the moon, and motion at the latitude of the planets (particularly Mercury and Venus), and also the proposal of a new system to replace the complicated mechanism Ptolemy's deferent and epicycles. Copernicus His criticism and energetic new astronomy and other Muslim astronomers contributed to its reform. Nasir al-Din wrote a treatise on the five quadrants and two treatises on the astrolabe. He also wrote two treatises on the calendar.

Nasir al-Din made representations to the observatory Maragha which was well equipped with good astronomical instruments. He prepared new astronomical tables called after the Mongol ruler, Al-Zij al-Ilkhani. Nasir al-Din asked the ruler to give a period of 30 years to compile tables, because it was the shortest period during which the planetary cycles have been completed. But the king refused, and he gave only 12 years to accomplish this task. Nasir al-Din tried successfully completed the paintings of this period. They were based on observations news. But the use of the oldest had been made.

The Zij-i-Ilkhani was originally written in Persian. It consists of four books dealing respectively with (a) Chinese, Greek, Arabic and Persian Chronology, (b) movements of the planets, (c) ephemeris and (d) astrological operations. The translation of the Zij was made in Arabic, and comments on this subject have been written. Finally, a kind of supplement that Jamshed was compiled by Ibn Mas'ud al-Kashi (d. 840/1436), the first director of the observatory of Ulugh Beg at Samarkand. These tables enjoyed great popularity in the East including China, and continued to be used even after the establishment of new tables by Ulugh Beg in 1437. (29)

A contemporary of Nasir al-Din al-Din al-Mu'ayyid Urdi-al-Dimashqi also participated with him in preparing the tables. He was an astronomer Syrian Architect and engineer. He began his career as a technician in Syria. It has hydraulic works in Damascus, and he also built an astronomical instrument of al-Mansour Ibrahim (King of Homs, 1239-1245). In about 1259 he went to Maragha, and has contributed to Nasir al-Din in the organization of the observatory and the compilation of tables. It seems that the instruments, remarkably precise, were built under his supervision in the foundry attached to the observatory.

Al-Urdi was the author of a treatise in which he also describes the instruments used in the observatory Maragha, and explains their use and construction. The instruments are as follows: –
(1) mural quadrant (2) sphere armillary (3) Armila solstice (4) Armila equinox (5) diopter Hipparchus's (alidade), (6) instrument with two quadrants (7) instrument with two arms (8) instruments to determine sines and azimuth (9) instruments to determine the sinuses and sinus paid (10), the perfect instrument (a universal) (11) Rule parallactic (Ptolemy).

Al-Urdi is also the author of two other treaties, one on the construction of a perfect sphere and another on the determination of the distance between the center of the sun and the zenith. He compiled astronomical tables and wrote on astronomy Ptolemy.

In 1279 or 1289 son of al-Urdi Muhammad was a celestial globe. It consisted of two copper hemispheres separated by the ecliptic. Its diameter was 140 mm. There was a circle of horizon. Two semi-circles were attached to mobile zenith point by a pivot. These circles are progressive and are used to determine the declination and right ascension of a star. Forty-eight constellations, the equator and the ecliptic are inlaid with silver or gold. It is kept in the lounge mathematical Dresden. (30)

The work of Muslim astronomers were later translated into Latin, Hebrew and vernacular by Jewish and Christian scholars, some of the technical terms, including azimuth (al-Samt), Algol (Alfol) Achernar (Akhir al-Nahr), passed in the EU languages. The names of many stars such as Akrab (Aqrab) Algedi (al-Jadi, the kid), Altair (al-ta'ir, the player), Denab (dhanb, tail), Pherkad (Farqad, veal), Adara (Adhrah) Aldebaran (al-dibràn), which are of Arab origin, has also adopted in these languages. The stars are innumerable in number, their separate study is not possible. They have been divided into different groups, and groups were named after things and animals with whom they looked like.

REFERENCES: –

1. Humanity Briffault, Robert, The Making of ', Lahore, 1980, p. 187.
2. Encyclopedia Britannica, London, Vol. II, p. 575.
3. Abu'l Hasan Ali Ibn Yusuf, Al-Qift, Tarikh al-Hikmah ", Leipzig, 1903, p. 265.
Sarton, George, Introduction to the History of Science, Washington 1927, vol. I. P. 530.
4. Ibid.
5. Ibid P. 563.
6. Al-Qift, op. cit., 57.

7. Ibid., P. 327.
Sarton, op. cit. P. 531.
8. Ibid.
9. Ibid. P. 557.
Haji Khalifah, Kashf al-Zunün, Istanbul, 1943, Vol. II, p. 1594.
10. Sarton, op. cit., p. 562.
11. Ibid, p. 558.
12. Shibli Nu'man Al-Ma'mun, Agra, 1894, pp. 49 to 50,
13. Ibn Nadeem, Al-Fehrist, al-Matba'ah Rahmaniyah, Cairo, nd. P. 383.
14. Shibli Nu'man, op. cit. pp. 49-50
Sarton, op. cit. P. 566.
15. Ibid.
16. Sarton, op. cit .. P. 585.
17. Al-Qift, op. cit. P. 170.
18. Ibid, p. 280.
Sarton, op. cit. P. 5858.
19. Ibid., P. 599.
20. Al-Qift, op. cit. P. 351.
21. Sarton, op. cit. P. 666.
22. Ibid.
23. A1-Sufi, 'Abd al-Rahman Swar al-Kawakib, Hyderabad, preface Mr. Nizamuddin, and DD Winter, pp. 1-7.
24. Al-Qift, op. cit., p. 226.
25. A1-Qift, op. cit., p. 230.
26. Sarton, op. cit., p. 758

27 Ibid., P.759
28. Ibid, vol. Part I II, p. 206.

29. Ibid. Part I, p. 204.

30. Basha al-Baghdadi, Ismail al-Hadiyyat'Arifin, Istanbul, 1951, vol. II, p. 131.

31. Sarton, op. cit. Vol. II, Part II, p. 1005.

32. Ibid. Pp 1013-1014.

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Ka-Bar Black Kukri Machete $38.47 Field-tested and -approved, the Ka-Bar Kukri machete is ideal for chopping down weeds, clearing a campsite, or cutting small branches. The machete is equipped with a 1085 Kukri-style carbon-steel blade that excels at chopping and basic field use, along with an ergonomically shaped Kraton G thermoplastic elastomer handle with a non-slip grip. The Kukri measures 17 inches overall with an 11-1/2-inch…

Young Justice: Season One, Volume One $7.00 Four of DC Comics’ most dedicated superhero sidekicks get their own shot at the spotlight in the energetic animated series Young Justice. Though it shares a name and some characters with Todd Dezago and Todd Nauck’s comic title, the Young Justice series, produced by Greg Weisman (The Spectacular Spider-Man) and Brandon Vietti, follows its own story arc, in which Robin (voiced by actor/pop star Jes…

DR SKINCARE ROLLER Distributor, 1.5mm,MEDICAL GRADE Stainless Steel Needles,Genesis Model,1.5mm. KOREA made Quality,not China Roller.derma,1.5mm,from Gifts2Shop $19.95 (Derma Needling System) Each and every 1.5mm Korea Skin Roller is crafted and assessed by hand to ensure that only the selected best are sold to our customers. Although this involves a great deal more labor power, but at bioGenesis, we belief that product quality is the most important standalone factor to ensure our customer’s satisfaction. Solid Plate Structure (SPS) The SPS technology of the…

Apple MacBook Pro MD313LL/A 13.3-Inch Laptop (NEWEST VERSION) $1,099.99 The Apple 13.3″ MacBook Pro is a powerful notebook computer with an innovative aluminum unibody design. It is loaded with advanced power management features and an integrated battery, which work together to provide up to 7 hours of wireless web browsing. You may notice an unfamiliar logo next to one of the ports on the left side of the system. This is Thunderbolt, a high-speed interface that can m…

Apple Ipad 2 Smart Cover Dark Gray $18.95 The Apple Smart Cover (Light Gray) is designed alongside iPad 2 to be its perfect match: a thin, durable cover that magnetically aligns for a perfect fit. It automatically wakes and sleeps your iPad. It’s a handy stand for reading, watching and typing. Its microfiber lining keeps your iPad screen clean. And it’s a way to make your iPad as personal on the outside as it is on the inside….

Logitech V470 Bluetooth Cordless Laser Mouse for Notebooks (White) $36.85 The Logitech 910-000692 V470 Wireless Bluetooth Mouse features Bluetooth wireless technology and laser tracking which means you’ll enjoy smoother tracking on just about any surface. It also offers side-to-side scrolling plus zoom which allows you to scroll side-to-side in documents or zoom in and out of photos and spreadsheets with a flick of your finger….

Starbucks Coffee Frappuccino Coffee Drink Mocha, 9.5 Ounce Bottles-(pack of 12) $15.40 Starbucks Coffee Frappuccino Coffee Drink Mocha, 9.5 Ounce Bottles-(pack of 12) A Lowfat Creamy Blend of Starbucks Coffee and Milk…

Trunki by Melissa & Doug Sunny, Orange $22.73 Travel becomes fun again with Trunki, the ride-on suitcase from Melissa & Doug. With its versatile ride-on or pull-along design, Trunki allows children to propel themselves easily alongside their family, or be pulled along by their parents when they get tired. Trunki lets you wave goodbye to tears and tantrums and welcome a new feeling of exploration and fun into your child’s early travels. Tr…

Melissa & Doug Butterfly Wooden Bead Set $7.92 Design your own unique necklaces and bracelets with a collection of beautiful beads. This crafty kit comes with different sizes of colorful wooden jewelry beads. Also jazz up your jewelry with an assortment of charming butterflies. Includes more than 150 beads and 5 laces in a handy wooden storage box….

Coraline in Star Spangled Sweater – NECA Comicon 2009 EXCLUSIVE $19.99 This special edition figure of Coraline from Henry Selick and Neil Gaiman’s hit stop motion film features a brand new outfit and facial expression not available anywhere else. Coraline also sports a fully poseable bendable doll body and articulation at the neck, wrists and boots….